- Systems Theory favors the ones in power - planners (p.2)
- Logical positivism has been largely abandoned in social sciences, it continues to have an influence upon social sciences through the focus upon empiricism (p.3)
empiricism, in philosophy, the view that all concepts originate in experience, that all concepts are about or applicable to things that can be experienced, or that all rationally acceptable beliefs or propositions are justifiable or knowable only through experience. This broad definition accords with the derivation of the term empiricism from the ancient Greek word empeiria, “experience.”
source:
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/186146/empiricism
Social theory, therefore, not only reflects upon society but can also shape it in a way that natural sciences cannot. (p.4)
open system (society)
closed system (natural sciences)
In science, Newton's laws held true til Einstein
> Popper developed: science based on fallibility. Falsifications sees theories as speculative and provisional truths - til they are disproven. Hypothesis is tested through observations, remains a provisional truth until disproven (p.5)
Criticism: observation statements are themselves fallible.
Kuhn:
Science works with paradigms or views of reality that encapsulate current knowledge of a subject (p.7)
Example of Copernicus x Bible < Galileo < heliocentric view accepted 200 years after Copernicus
> turn to subjective > relativism in science (criteria for judging the merits of theories will depend on the values and interests of the individual or community entertaining them. (p.8)
Competing world views appeal to different legitimacies.
in planning: relativism is characteristic of postmodernism, postmodern planning, advocacy
If one theory is chosen over another (all logically consistent with the same data), the choice has less to do with objective science and more to do with social factors (p.9)
Planning involves aspects of both natural science and social science. (p.10)
Normative theory
- how the world ought to be, and how to achieve that
- theories of planning
- Marxist, liberal, communicative, collaborative planning approaches
Perspective theories
- How to go about things, concerned with best means of achieving a desired condition
- theories in planning
- cost-benefit analysis, mixed scanning etc.
Empirical theory
- explains and interprets reality
- focus on causal relationships, in/dependent variables, Hypothesis to be tested
Models
- simplified representations and pictures of reality
- do not always include hypotheses, but are testable
Conceptual frameworks or perspectives
- linguistic analysis
- ways of looking at or conceiving an object of study
- some Marxist perspectives fall here
Theorizing
- catch-all category
- thinking about some aspect of a phenomenon
"..there is no 'planning'. Rather, there is a diversity of practices in planning (as there is everywhere), and different kinds of planners in different contexts should (and do) enact different models or theories of planning (Alexander, 2003, p. 181)" (p.12)
Theory of discourse (p. 12)
- Theories are socially constructed between power and discourse
- rejects 'Truth', absolute, objective concept
- normative
normative (ˈnɔːmətɪv)
adj
1. implying, creating, or prescribing a norm or standard, as in language: normative grammar.
2. expressing value judgments or prescriptions as contrasted with stating facts: normative economics.
3. of, relating to, or based on norms
source: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/normative
Example:
often: Scientific progress > industrial and commercial growth
Marx: Science ought to serve the liberation of humanity from exploitation
Theory can be seen as discourse and a mask for power and politics (p. 17)
inputs: normative elements (social, individual), discursive elements - both influenced by power
in planning:
plan reflection of
- desires and needs of local area
- central government and economic forces
in planning theory:
- structure - agency relationship
(use of theory limited by structure, theories of planning ignore the relationship (making them less useful)
structuralism (~marxism) - emphasizes the role of structure in dictating actions and events
- criticized for ignoring actors
intentionalism
- focuses on individual action
- Public Choice Theory
- criticism: people sometimes behave 'illogically'
fuse of structuralism and intentionalism:
- Giddens: Structuration
To recognize the duality of structure an agency
- Bhaskar: Critical Realism
Actor Network Theory - social relations and power of agency
Post-structuralist argue that we cannot distinguish between structure and agency
Communicative Planning Theory - dominant paradigm in planning theory
can see as:
theory - planners
agency - practitioners
Planners are influenced by structure as well as create structure
"Instead of asking whether a theory "works", we should be asking questions about why this particular theory was used, who is using it and for what purpose. The answer to these questions will tell us as much (if not more) of importance as whether the theory corresponds to reality." (p. 29)
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